The Civil Rights Act of 1991 reaffirmed a federal government's commitment to affirmative action, but a 1995 Supreme Court decision placed limits on the use of race in awarding government contracts the affected government programs were revamped in the late 1990s to encompass any person who was “socially disadvantaged.” Since the mid-1990s, in a public backlash against perceived reverse discrimination, California and a number of other states have banned the use of race- and sex-based preferences in state and local programs and contracting, and public education. In three cases in 1989, the Supreme Court undercut court-approved affirmative action plans by giving greater standing to claims of reverse discrimination, voiding the use of minority set-asides where past discrimination against minority contractors was unproved, and restricting the use of statistics to prove discrimination, since statistics did not prove intent. In the 1980s, the federal government's role in affirmative action was considerably diluted. Bakke (1978), it let existing programs stand and approved the use of quotas in 1979 in a case involving voluntary affirmative-action programs in unions and private businesses. Supreme Court accepted such an argument in Regents of the University of California v. The establishment of racial quotas in the name of affirmative action brought charges of so-called reverse discrimination in the late 1970s. The Equal Employment Opportunities Act (1972) set up a commission to enforce such plans. The policy was implemented by federal agencies enforcing the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and two executive orders, which provided that government contractors and educational institutions receiving federal funds develop such programs. Affirmative action, in the United States, programs to overcome the effects of past societal discrimination by allocating jobs and resources to members of specific groups, such as minorities and women.
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